ÑRagr.dir 172 The Plower, beginning of the 4th cent. BC - Rome, Museo Nazionale Etrusco Villa Giulia
ÑRagr.dir 201 Agriculture was one of the chief economic resources of the Roman world. Initially practiced at a family level on small farms, it was considered one of the noblest of human activities. With the great conquests of the second century BC, the place of the small farm began to be taken by the latifundium or large landed estate, with an ever increasing reliance on slave labor. For centuries the basis of agricultural production remained spelt (a primitive form of wheat), millet, wheat, barley, vines, and olives.
ÑRagr.dir 202 Fruit trees were also widely cultivated. The literary sources, especially Cato (234-149 BC) and Varro (116-27 BC), have provided us with important treatises on agriculture, manuals that retained their relevance up until the advent of modern technology. The implements used for manual labor were similar to those of our own day: hoes, spades, rakes, sickles, etc. Fields were tilled principally with the simple plow without a moldboard, drawn by oxen. The carriage plow (plaumaratrum) was less common. Presses and millstones were frequently used for the processing of grapes, olives, and wheat.
ÑRall.dir 171 Still life with eggs and game, fresco. Naples, Museo Nazionale
ÑRall.dir 172 Hercules finds his son Telephus, detail - Naples, Museo Nazionale
ÑRall.dir 173 Rooster and bunch of grapes, fresco. Naples, Museo Nazionale
ÑRall.dir 174 Still life with rabbit, fresco. Naples, Museo Nazionale
ÑRall.dir 201 An integral part of agriculture, stock raising was the subject of long and detailed treatises by ancient agronomists. Oxen, horses, mules, sheep, and pigs were raised on a large scale and using tried and tested criteria for the selection of breeds and prevention of disease. This activity supplied the animals required for transport and working the fields, as well as wool, hides, and meat. The raising of barnyard animals was also common: chickens and hens of various breeds, as well as capons, geese, ducks, pigeons, turtle doves, and peacocks.
ÑRall.dir 202 Toward the end of the Republican era and in the Imperial one, specialized farms were set up on which deer, wild boar, and hares were raised in special enclosures. In addition there were aviaries with pheasants, flamingos, peacocks, cranes, partridges, and thrushes. Highly specialized labor was required by the farms that raised dormice and snails, for which the Romans had a weakness, and dogs, which were used for hunting, guarding, or herding sheep. Beekeeping was of great importance for the production of wax and honey, the only sweetener known to the ancient world. From the end of the second century BC onward, fish of all kinds were raised. This was an extremely expensive activity, and its products were reserved for the tables of the most well-to-do classes.
ÑRcasa.dir 171 Cinerary urn made of cob in the form of a hut. Grottaferrata
ÑRcasa.dir 172 Fresco and stucco decoration depicting woman at door - Naples, Museo Nazionale
ÑRcasa.dir 173 Street of the Balconies, Ostia Antica
ÑRcasa.dir 174 Model of an apartment house - Rome, Museo della Civiltê Romana
ÑRcasa.dir 175 The interior of a Roman house in a nineteenth-century engraving
ÑRcasa.dir 176 Atrium of ahouse from the Roman era, Pompeii
ÑRcasa.dir 177 Mosaic at the entrance of a house from the Roman era, Pompeii
ÑRcasa.dir 178 House of Livia, detail of a frescoed wall, Rome
ÑRcasa.dir 179 House of Livia, detail of the interior, Rome
ÑRcasa.dir 180 Peristyle of Roman house - Pompeii. 1st cent. AD
ÑRcasa.dir 181 Toilette of a Roman woman of high rank, detail from a nineteenth-century engraving
ÑRcasa.dir 182 Scene of a banquet, detail from a nineteenth-century engraving
ÑRcasa.dir 183 Bed from the Roman era - Chieti, Museo Nazionale
ÑRcasa.dir 184 Round bronze table - Naples, Museo Archeologico Nazionale
ÑRcasa.dir 185 Marble garden table - Pompeii, 1st cent. AD
ÑRcasa.dir 186 Reconstruction of a wooden closet from the Roman era - Rome, Museo della Civiltê Romana
ÑRcasa.dir 187 Oil lamp with three spouts hanging from chains - Herculaneum, 1st cent. AD
ÑRcasa.dir 188 Bronze tripod on folding support - Nocera, 1st cent. AD
ÑRcasa.dir 189 Heating system of a Roman house - Rome, Museo della Civilta Romana
ÑRcasa.dir 190 Bronze container for heating water- Pompeii,1st cent. AD
ÑRcasa.dir 201 For the Romans, lovers of domestic tranquillity, the house was of fundamental importance. Ever more complicated dwellings were gradually developed from the early circular huts. The house with an Etruscan-Italic atrium was certainly the most common among Romans of high rank. Luxuriously finished, these houses were sometimes fitted with a complex system for the supply of water and an adequate heating system.
ÑRcasa.dir 202 However the majority of the population, at least in the Imperial age, lived in blocks of apartments on several stories (insulae), with balconies and windows in the outer walls. The small apartments of these buildings had two or three rooms set in a line along the front and linked by a corridor, and generally lacked the most basic conveniences. Finally, the wealthiest Romans lived in comfortable villas, often located outside the city and equipped with a very kind of convenience, at times even including small baths and private harbors. The architecture of these residential complexes was complemented by splendid gardens.
ÑRcasa.dir 203 THE HOUSE WITH AN ETRUSCAN-ITALIC ATRIUM (The DOMUS)
This was made up of a central court (atrium) surrounded by a series of rooms used for a wide variety of purposes, including the bedrooms (cubicula), a dining room (triclinium), and a larger room (tablinum) facing onto a small garden (hortus), in which the family conducted its most important business. A basin (impluvium) was set in the middle of the atrium to collect the rainwater that ran off the converging slopes of the roof.
ÑRcasa.dir 204 The atrium was entered through a passage (vestibulum), flanked by two rooms that often opened onto the road and served as stores (tabernae). Later the center of family life became the cavedium or peristylium, a comfortable room with a colonnade and a small garden in the middle, onto which all the rooms in the house faced, including the kitchen (culina) and bathroom (balneum or latrina). Dwellings of this type generally had only one story; any rooms on an upper floor were used as storehouses and accommodation for slaves.
ÑRcasa.dir 205 FURNISHINGS
Just like the house itself, the furnishings varied according to the economic circumstances of the owner. However beds, chairs, tables, and closets of various kinds were always present. Our information about Roman furniture, most of it made out of wood or bronze, comes to us from literary sources, reliefs in tombs, wall paintings, and above all the archeological finds made during the excavation of Herculaneum and Pompeii. One piece of furniture that was never lacking was the bed, which existed in various forms, including, obviously, one for sleeping (lectus cubicularis) and one for eating (lectus triclinaris).
ÑRcasa.dir 206 LIGHTING AND HEATING
Public and private buildings were illuminated by means of torches, candles, and oil lamps. Oil lamps were the most common source of light and could be made out of terra-cotta or bronze and be simple or extremely elegant. Originally the sole means of heating the Roman house were portable braziers, stoves, and fireplaces, which gave off a great deal of smoke and toxic fumes and represented a continual danger of fire.
ÑRcasa.dir 207 Toward the end of the Republican era a more complex system of heating was introduced, especially in the public baths, but also in the homes of wealthier citizens. A furnace (praefurnium) was used to heat air that, passing through a special space created under the floors, was conveyed to terra-cotta pipes that carried the heat to the walls of the rooms as well.
ÑRcom.dir 171 Mosaic depicting boat. Roman Villa of the Casale, Piazza Armerina, Enna.
ÑRcom.dir 172 Sign of a vendor of vegetables and poultry. Ostia, Museo Archeologico
ÑRcom.dir 173 Fresco from Pompeii depicting boats. 1st cent. BC
ÑRcom.dir 174 Roman ship, detail from a stele of Publius Longidenus. Ravenna, Museo Nazionale
ÑRcom.dir 175 Trajan's Column: scene of trading, detail
ÑRcom.dir 201 The development of commerce in the Roman world was due to the economic and political expansion of Rome, to its undisputed control of the seas, and to the construction of an excellent road system linked to the main sea and river routes. In the most ancient times trade was limited chiefly to the products of farming and stock raising, for which Rome was one of the most flourishing markets. With Carthage defeated, Rome became the uncontested master of the Mediterranean. Trading along the sea and river routes grew more intense, while goods of all kinds flowed into Rome. Precious fabrics, such as silk, came from China, spices and fragrances came from the East and Arabia, papyri and crystals came from Egypt, and emeralds from Scotland. The numerous wrecks of Roman cargo ships that have been found on the sea bottom in recent years provide convincing evidence of the intensity of trade and the variety of goods transported.
ÑReco.dir 171 Greengrocer's sign - Ostia, Museo Archeologico
ÑReco.dir 173 Relief representing vendor of blankets and cushions - Florence, Galleria degli Uffizi
ÑReco.dir 174 The Bakery, fresco. Naples, Museo Nazionale
ÑReco.dir 201 The principal economic resources of Rome under the monarchy and during the early Republic were based on farming and stock raising, activities regarded as being among the noblest in character and that were carried out on a family basis on small farms. Products of the soil and livestock were bartered for other consumer goods at small open-air markets.
Thus in Rome, an important trading post from its very beginnings, special areas for the trading of animals and vegetables (the Forum Boarium and Forum Holitorium) were located around the Tiber Island. With the great conquests of the second century BC, the Roman economy underwent a progressive and profound transformation. Rome became the economic center of the state into which flowed all the riches of the Mediterranean. An extensive system of roads that were connected with all the main sea and river routes facilitated trade with the territories brought under Rome's rule.
ÑRedif.dir 171 The Baths of Caracalla - 212/16 AD, Rome
ÑRedif.dir 172 Mosaic depicting Triton, Baths of Herculaneum
ÑRedif.dir 173 Section of the Coliseum
ÑRedif.dir 174 Roman amphitheater, Syracuse
ÑRedif.dir 175 Museo Nazionale Romano: bas-relief representing fight between gladiators
ÑRedif.dir 176 Museo Nazionale Romano: detail of combat with fair, mosaic
ÑRedif.dir 177 Circus Maximus, detail
ÑRedif.dir 178 Relief representing scenes of the Circus Maximus
ÑRedif.dir 179 Mosaic with circus scenes - Rome, Galleria Borghese
ÑRedif.dir 180 Detail of mosaic with circus scenes: gladiator with a leopard
ÑRedif.dir 181 The charioteers of the four factions, detail - Rome, Museo delle Terme
ÑRedif.dir 182 The charioteers of the four factions, detail - Rome, Museo delle Terme
ÑRedif.dir 183 The charioteers of the four factions, detail - Rome, Museo delle Terme
ÑRedif.dir 184 The charioteers of the four factions, detail - Rome, Museo delle Terme
ÑRedif.dir 185 Graphic reproduction of theatrical masks
ÑRedif.dir 186 The Roman Theater in Athens
ÑRedif.dir 187 The Imperial Fora: the Arch of Septimius Severus, Rome
ÑRedif.dir 188 Arch of Titus, Rome. 1st cent. AD
ÑRedif.dir 189 Arch of Constantine, Rome. 4th cent. AD
ÑRedif.dir 190 The Basilica Julia, Rome
ÑRedif.dir 191 The Appian Way near Rome in a nineteenth-century engraving
ÑRedif.dir 192 The Appian Way
ÑRedif.dir 193 Roman Bridge, Porto Torres. 1st cent. AD
ÑRedif.dir 201 THE BATHS
The use of thermae or public baths began to spread among the Romans toward the end of the 3rd century BC. Soon these baths came to be used not just as places for the care of the body but as the city's chief meeting places, where the population likes to spend its free time. In the Imperial age the thermae were marvelous ╟multi-functional centers,╚ containing not just baths but also gymnasia, libraries, splendid gardens, rooms for conferences and exhibitions, and places where all sorts of performances were staged.
ÑRedif.dir 202 Their number grew throughout the Empire; it is thought that in Rome, whose population reached a million and a half at its peak, there were about 900 public baths and eleven large thermae in the fourth century. The thermal complexes were some of the greatest masterpieces of Roman architecture and engineering: the rooms used for different purposes were skillfully arranged; the magnificent vaulted roofs were daring and massive; the sophisticated heating systems were works of high technical skill; extreme care was taken over the architectural and decorative details.
ÑRedif.dir 203 THE AMPHITHEATER
A typically Roman building, elliptical in shape, it was similar to the modern stadium. The early wooden structures were followed by constructions in stone, of which the Amphitheater in Pompeii is the oldest example (80 BC). These buildings had an arena surrounded by tiers for the spectators, and an external face that usually had several orders of arches. The amphitheaters were used to stage the highly popular gladiatorial spectacles, hunts, and sometimes naumachies, grand naval battles that reproduced combats of the past.
ÑRedif.dir 204 The Romans, who greatly appreciated such spectacles, provided the main cities of the Empire with splendid and capacious amphitheaters. In some cities, especially in the Middle East, the use of suitably modified theaters for such performances meant that no amphitheaters were built. Notwithstanding their prohibition by Constantine (325), gladiatorial combats only ceased to be staged in the West under Emperor Honorius in 406.
ÑRedif.dir 205 THE CIRCUS
The introduction of the Circus into the Roman world dates from the age of monarchy, with the foundation of the Circus Maximus by the Tarquins. The oldest of these buildings were constructed largely out of wood and it was not until later that permanent structures were created. The Circus was made up of tiers of seating, linked at one end by a semicircle and, at the other, by an oblique section with the ╟cages╚ from which the chariots started (carceres).
ÑRedif.dir 206 Down the center of the arena ran a barrier known as the spina, around which the charioteers had to turn. The spina was bounded at each end by semicircular metae and it was adorned with numerous statues and works of architecture. The circus was used chiefly for two- and four-horse chariot (biga and quadriga) races, but hunts and gladiatorial spectacles were also staged in it. Many supporters (the Circus Maximus in Rome could hold almost 300,000) came to cheer on the charioteers of the rival factions. There were four of these in Rome: the Whites, Reds, Greens, and Blues.
ÑRedif.dir 207 THE THEATER
A building of Greek origin, on a semicircular plan, the theater spread widely in the Roman world. Unlike the Greek one, it was usually an isolated structure, with the tiers supported by imposing structures rather than cut into the natural slope of a hill. Its outer face of superimposed orders of arches became a characteristic feature of Roman architecture.
ÑRedif.dir 208 The orchestra, which was smaller than in the Greek model, was semicircular in shape, while the stage was generally set at a lower level so that the spectators in the front rows had a clear view of the scene. Special attention was paid to giving the building entrances and passages that could cope with the inflow and outflow of the large audiences.
ÑRedif.dir 209 COMMEMORATIVE OR TRIUMPHAL ARCHES
A monument characteristic of Roman architecture, it spread rapidly throughout the Empire from the Augustan age onward. To the original function of a passage and support for statues and trophies was added an avowed commemorative intent, designed to glorify the victorious deeds of the emperor.
ÑRedif.dir 210 The essential elements of the arch of triumph are the passage, bounded by supporting pillars and the vault, and the upper block (attic), which originally constituted the base for the many statues and trophies. The commemorative arch was usually an isolated construction with one, three, or four supporting arches, with one on each of the monument's four sides in the latter case. Columns, statues, and figured reliefs were used to give it a solemn and elegant appearance.
ÑRedif.dir 211 THE BASILICA
A building of Greek and Asiatic origin, it became common in Rome and the Roman world from the late Republican era onward (second century BC). The basilica, used for the dispensation of justice and various civil ceremonies of an official character, generally consisted of a rectangular hall with the interior divided into a nave and aisles by columns, and a semicircular apse on one of the short sides.
ÑRedif.dir 212 The exterior could be surrounded by porticoes that were often used for commercial purposes. The form of the basilica was to survive in Europe through its adoption in medieval Christian architecture.
ÑRedif.dir 213 ROADS
Roads were extremely important in the Roman world, for their construction permitted not only the conquest but above all control of the territories that Rome progressively brought under its sway. Through an extensive network of roads, with surfaces of stone paving, gravel, or earth, linking sea and river routes, it was possible to reach any place in the known world of that time. As well as ensuring connections and trade links, the roads played a fundamental role as a means for the diffusion of ideas, language, and religion, guaranteeing the cultural unity of the vast Roman Empire.
ÑRedif.dir 214 Representing some of the greatest achievements of Roman construction technique, the roads were generally straight and set at a level raised slightly above that of the surrounding ground. Great efforts were made to keep them level, through the use of embankments and viaducts, and bridges and tunnels were built to overcome natural obstacles. At regular intervals of a Roman mile (1478.6 meters or 1617.6 yards) posts were set indicating the distance traveled. The layout of important Roman roads has remained almost unaltered down to the present day.
ÑRerco.dir 171 The Cardo IV, detail of house with wooden structures - Herculaneum
ÑRerco.dir 172 The Decuman Maximus, Herculaneum
ÑRerco.dir 173 The archeological area, Herculaneum
ÑRerco.dir 174 Millstone, Herculaneum
ÑRerco.dir 175 The suburban baths, Herculaneum
ÑRerco.dir 176 The suburban baths, Herculaneum
ÑRerco.dir 177 The suburban baths, Herculaneum
ÑRerco.dir 178 The House of the Relief of Telephus, Herculaneum
ÑRerco.dir 179 House of the Relief of Telephus, detail of a shrine - Herculaneum
ÑRerco.dir 180 House of the Relief of Telephus, detail of the peristyle
ÑRerco.dir 181 House of the Relief of Telephus, detail of a fresco - Herculaneum
ÑRerco.dir 201 A small Campanian settlement close to Naples, on the slopes of Vesuvius, Herculaneum was situated in antiquity on the route of the great coastal road that led from Neapolis to Pompeii and Stabiae. It is likely that the oldest part of the city was of Greek origin, as is suggested by the legend handed down by Dionysius of Halicarnassus, which holds that Herculaneum had been founded by Hercules on his return from his fabulous journey to Iberia.
ÑRerco.dir 202 Coming under Roman rule at the end of the fourth century BC, it played an active part in the Second Italic War (or War of the Allies, 89 BC) and was stormed and taken by one of Sulla's legates. Losing all independence, it became a Roman colony and was occupied by veterans of Sulla's army. Seriously damaged by the earthquake of 62 AD, it was still undergoing reconstruction when it was completely destroyed by the eruption of Vesuvius seventeen years later.
ÑRerco.dir 203 THE BATHS
As in Pompeii and every other town and city in the Roman world, there were several thermae in Herculaneum. In this case, the most important was the one located in the city's Forum. The baths of Herculaneum are smaller than those of Pompeii and their heating and operating systems are less efficient and advanced. They have the same arrangement of rooms (changing room, frigidarium, tepidarium, and calidarium) and the same strict separation of the women's and men's section. The building, constructed in the Augustan age (circa 10 BC), was decorated later, during the reign of Emperor Nero.
ÑRerco.dir 204 HOUSE OF THE RELIEF OF TELEPHUS
This is one of the largest and most sumptuous domus in the southern quarter of Herculaneum. The strong slope of the ground and the desire for a view of the gulf induced the owner to follow a highly unusual plan, so that the rooms are set on two different levels, linked together by a staircase. The rooms facing onto the peristyle are decorated in a particularly sumptuous manner, and the marble decoration of the floor and walls in the largest of them is the most luxurious ever to have been found in a Roman dwelling. The house takes its name from the relief in the neo-Attic style depicting the myth of Telephus that was found in one of the small rooms preceding this hall during the excavations.
ÑRfami.dir 171 Villa of the Mysteries, fresco depicting woman and child. Pompeii.
ÑRfami.dir 172 Portrait of a magistrate and his wife, Naples, Museo Archeologico Nazionale
ÑRfami.dir 173 Group with busts of Gratidia M. L. Chrite and Gratidus Libanus, 1st cent. BC
ÑRfami.dir 174 Mosaic from the Roman villa on Piazza Amerina depicting amorous scene. 4th cent. AD
ÑRfami.dir 175 Detail of sarcophagus representing the education of a boy. 2nd cent. AD
ÑRfami.dir 201 There were two forms of marriage in use in Rome: in the first, and older one, the woman became part of the husband's family, submitting to his conjugal authority; in the second, the wife continued to belong to the paternal family, retaining its rights of inheritance and remaining subject to her own father. Fidelity was extremely important in Roman society: an unfaithful woman was repudiated by her husband and incurred severe penalties. Having had only one husband was considered a female virtue; women who married for a second time, even after being widowed, did not meet with public approval. Unlike the Greeks, who kept their women shut up in the gynaecea and did not spend their free time with their families, the Romans were fond of domestic life and attended receptions and banquets in the company of their wives. In fact, while the Roman custom of finding husbands for daughters at a very early age forced girls to live a secluded life, once married Roman matrons were trusted by their husbands and were able to enjoy an active social life.
ÑRfami.dir 202 The head of the family (paterfamilias) had absolute authority over his children and even, in the earliest phases of Roman history, held the power of life and death over them. This right was lost during the Empire, and yet up until the first centuries after Christ he was still able to expose newborn children at the public dumps, where they died of cold and hunger. This practice was confined largely to the poorest classes, and used to get rid of illegitimate children and newborn girls. It was only through the influence of Christianity that an end was put to this dramatic custom in 374 BC.
ÑRfunerar.dir 171 Tomb of Cecilia Metella, Rome
ÑRfunerar.dir 172 Catacombs of the Via Latina, decoration of one of the tunnels. Rome, 4th cent. AD
ÑRfunerar.dir 173 Roman sarcophagus of Rapolla, 3rd cent. AD
ÑRfunerar.dir 174 Ludovisi sarcophagus, 3rd cent. AD - Rome, Museo Nazionale
ÑRfunerar.dir 201 TOMBS
It was the custom of the Romans to build tombs along roads outside the city. These varied in kind and appearance in relation to the social status of the dead person. This practice ensured that the memory of the dead was kept alive for the living. Moving inscriptions often invited the wayfarer to offer up a prayer for the dead. Large mausoleums, like that of Cecilia Metella in Rome, were erected, tombs surrounded by a small sacred area, or underground tombs and columbaria. The Christians buried their dead in the catacombs, underground cemeteries that were widespread in Rome in particular from the second century onward. In the Republican era and the early centuries of the Empire cremation of the dead was the most common practice among the wealthier classes. Later the rite of burial spread from the poorer classes to the most illustrious families, as can be seen from the rich sarcophagi of the Imperial age.
ÑRimp.dir 201 CARACALLA
MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS (211 - 217)
He was born at Lyons in 188 to Septimius Severus and Julia Domna. His name derives from a mantle used by the Gauls that the young emperor liked to wear. At the age of fourteen he married Plautilla, whom he later confined to the island of Lipari, and at the age of twenty-three became co-emperor with his brother Geta, for whom he nursed a deep hatred. In fact in February 212 he had him killed by two centurions. He was a ruthless and cruel ruler. He liked to imitate Alexander the Great and the invincible Achilles of the Iliad. He promulgated the famous Constitutio Antoniana that gave Roman citizenship to all the subjects of the Empire. To restore faith in the currency he created the ╟Antonine,╚ containing a larger proportion of silver, but this measure proved insufficient to check inflation. He began the construction of the Baths in Rome that are named after him. He died at Carrae in Mesopotamia at the age of twenty-nine, murdered on the orders of the Praetorian prefect Macrinus. In 218 he was deified by Elagabalus.
ÑRimp.dir 202 MARCUS AURELIUS
MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS
(161 - 180)
He was born in Rome in 121 with the name of Marcus Annius Verus, which was changed at the time of his adoption by Antoninus Pius in 138. As a young man he studied Stoic philosophy, eloquence, and painting. He wrote a work entitled Conversations with Oneself. He married his cousin Faustina, the daughter of Antoninus, who gave him thirteen children. For eight years he ruled the Empire jointly with his adopted brother Lucius Verus: for the first time there were two Augustuses in Rome. A wise man, he always showed deference to the senate and love for the people. He was obliged to deal with unrest, rebellions, and attacks on the Empire by its subject peoples. During his reign a number of Roman ambassadors traveled as far as China. He died of plague at the age of sixty-nine, either at Vindobona (Vienna) or in the military camp of Sirmium (Southern Pannonia).
ÑRimp.dir 203 HADRIAN
PUBLIUS AELIUS HADRIANUS
(117 - 138)
A relative of Trajan, he was probably born in Rome to a family of Spanish origin in 76. In 100 he married Trajan's grandniece Sabina and, at the age of forty-one, was elected emperor by the Senate.
He was the first ╟humanist╚ emperor, fond of Stoic philosophy, and gave a pacificist slant to his policy. There were no wars during his reign apart from the revolt of the Jews in the last years of his life.
He visited all the provinces of the Empire, built Hadrian's Wall in Britain, the Temple of Venus in Rome, and a magnificent villa near Tivoli, which he probably designed himself. He loved the young Antinous, whom he deified after his premature death, and, having no children, adopted Antoninus to ensure the succession to the Empire.
He died at Baia in 138 at the age of sixty-two.
ÑRimp.dir 204 DIOCLETIAN
GAIUS VALERIUS DIOCLETIANUS
(284 - 305)
He was born at Salona in Dalmatia in 243. He held the highest military offices under Aurelian and Probus and in 284 was acclaimed emperor by the army. He introduced the ╟Tetrarchy,╚ splitting the Empire into two parts: Eastern and Western, each ruled by an Augustus and a Caesar. He established his own residence at Nicomedia and then Byzantium. He put the administration of the state back on a sound basis with an important tax reform and restored faith in the currency. He was a wise and valiant man, but also a cruel one: the Christians were subjected to fierce persecution during his reign. He defeated the Persians and Sarmatians and put down dangerous internal revolts. In 305 he abdicated in favor of Galerius and retired to his palace in Split, where he died in 313.
ÑRimp.dir 205 AUGUSTUS
GAIUS OCTAVIANUS CAEPIUS
(27 BC - 14 AD)
Born at Velletri in 63 BC, he was the first of the Roman emperors. He personally held all the principal offices of the state, which were bestowed on him by the Senate and the Roman people. In 27 he was given the title of Augustus, which was to remain the official designation of all his successors. He defeated the peoples of the Alpine region and the lower Danube (Switzerland and Austria), but was unable to conquer Germany. He reorganized the provinces, reformed the army, boosted the monetary economy, and embellished Rome and the Empire with new monuments. He died at Nola in 14 AD at the age of seventy-six.
ÑRimp.dir 206 VESPASIAN
TITUS FLAVIUS VESPASIANUS
(69 - 79)
A descendant of the Flavius family, he was born in the vicinity of Rieti in Sabina in the year 9. He held high offices under Caligula and Claudius. Nero's general in Judea charged with subjugating the kingdom, he was acclaimed emperor by the armies of the East and defeated Vitellius. He ruled with wisdom and moderation, built and restored many temples, and commenced the construction of the Flavian amphitheater in Rome, later called the Coliseum. He had three children by Flavia Domitilla: the future emperors Titus and Domitian, and Domitilla. He died at Cutilia, near Rieti, at the age of eighty-eight. His son Titus had him deified and temples were built in his honor.
ÑRimp.dir 207 TRAJAN
MARCUS ULPIUS TRAJANUS
(98 - 117)
A descendant of the Ulpius family, originally from Todi, he was born at Italica in ancient Baetica, near Seville, in 53. He was the first emperor of foreign birth. During his rule the empire attained the peak of its power. He conquered Arabia, Armenia, Assyria, Mesopotamia, and Dacia. The main events of the Dacian war are wonderfully illustrated in the splendid reliefs of Trajan's Column in Rome. He married Plotina and adopted Hadrian. He ruled with such justice and mercy that he was granted the title of Optimus Princeps. On his way to wage war against the Jews, Trajan fell ill in Syria and died at Selinus in Cilicia at the age of sixty-four.
ÑRimp.dir 208 NERO
LUCIUS DOMITIUS NERO
(54 - 68)
A descendant of the noble Domitius family, he was born at Anzio in 37 and was acclaimed emperor at the age of seventeen. At first he ruled in a wise and moderate way, but then became cruel and tyrannical. He built the Domus Aurea in Rome, a gigantic imperial palace that was richly decorated and furnished. He had his mother Agrippina and wife Ottavia murdered, and kicked his second wife Poppea to death. After the famous burning of Rome (64), he proclaimed the first persecution of the Christians, during which the apostles Peter and Paul were martyred. He conquered Armenia and carried out an important monetary reform. After the bloody repression of a conspiracy against him, he took his own life in 68 when he was declared an ╟enemy of the state.╚ After his death his portraits were destroyed and his name erased from public monuments as an act of damnatio memoriae.
ÑRimp.dir 209 CONSTANTINE
FLAVIUS VALERIUS COSTANTINUS MAXIMUS (306 - 337)
The son of Constantius Chlorus and Helen, he was born at Naissos in Moesia on February 27, 276. On his father's death (306), he was acclaimed emperor by the army in Britain. He defeated Maxentius in Italy and became emperor of the West. According to legend, his victory at the Milvian bridge was the will of the Christian god. After defeating Licinius (324), his former ally who had become emperor of the East, he reunified the Empire. He moved the capital from Rome to Constantinople (326 or 330), in order to meet the threat of barbarian invasions on the borders of the Empire. He governed wisely, restored many monuments in Rome, and built several basilicas for the Christians. However he was also ruthless: in fact he had his son Crispus and wife Fausta killed because they were suspected of treason. He died at Nicomedia at the age of thirty-one while preparing a campaign against the Persians.
ÑRistit.dir 171 Ara pacis: the trial of the Quiriti.
ÑRistit.dir 172 Prima Porta head of Augustus
ÑRistit.dir 173 Fragment of sarcophagus, 3rd cent. AD - Vatican, Museo Gregoriano Profano.
ÑRistit.dir 175 Vincenzo Camuccini: Death of Julius Caesar - Naples, Museo di Capodimonte
ÑRistit.dir 176 Fragment of sarcophagus with figures wearing togas, 3rd cent. AD - Rome, Museo Nazionale
ÑRistit.dir 177 Roman magistrate. 4th cent. AD, Vatican, Museo Gregoriano Profano.
ÑRistit.dir 178 Three figures wearing togas, detail from a sepulchral relief of the 1st cent. BC
ÑRistit.dir 179 Relief representing notaries - Ostia, Museo Archeologico
ÑRistit.dir 180 Reproduction of Roman costume: the emperor
ÑRistit.dir 201 The history of the legal systems adopted in Rome from the seventh century BC onward can be divided into two distinct periods: that of ╟the monarchy╚ and that of ╟the republic╚. These were followed by the ╟period of the Empire╚ (late first century BC) during which the chief magistratures, while continuing to exist nominally, were in fact stripped of all real power to make decisions.
The archaic Roman state was founded on two main elements: the civitas (city), comprising the urban settlement and its immediate surroundings, and the gentes (clans) of the patricii or quirites, i.e. those who had played a part in the formation and expansion of the city.
ÑRistit.dir 202 Only these had the right to the title of cives (citizens), while all the other inhabitants who belonged to stock that had entered the city as a result of conquest or subjection were called plebeii and, at least up until the middle of the fourth century BC, received no public recognition. During the archaic era, there was also the category of the clientes, who had a relationship of direct and exclusive dependence on a particular family and not the community as a whole.
With the Empire, all the powers that had helped to create and consolidate the greatness of the Roman state under the Republic were united in the figure of the princeps, the emperor.
ÑRistit.dir 203 THE REGAL PERIOD
The first period in the political history of Rome was that of the Monarchy, when a single individual wielded all the powers of the state: legislative, executive, and judiciary, along with command of the army and conduct of religious ceremonies. This sacred character of the head of state was maintained right through to the Imperial era.
Citizens were able to take part in the assemblies. These consisted of the Senate (assembly of the patres), which had the role of advising the sovereign, and the Comitia Curiata (assembly of the cives), divided into three tribes (the Ramnes = Romans, Tities = Sabines, and Luceres = others), each of which was in turn subdivided into thirty Curiae of ten gentes, which approved laws.
ÑRistit.dir 204 REPUBLICAN ERA
The exclusive and lifelong power of the rex was transformed into a temporary elected post. The branches of power were clearly separated and the duties of the assemblies sharply circumscribed. The Roman system of government in the Republican era can be summed up as follows:
ÑRistit.dir 205 THE ASSEMBLIES
The Senate. Responsible for the domestic and foreign policy of Rome, it proposed and ratified laws, elected provincial governors, allocated state funds, appointed the ╟dictator,╚ and debated all fundamental questions. It was made up of former magistrates who were elected for life. It wielded great power, at least formally, even in the Imperial era.
The Comitia Centuriata comprised the entire body of citizens, divided into five classes and 193 centuries. They passed laws, elected magistrates, drew up lists for military service, and also functioned as courts of appeal for some cases. The Comitia Curiata were similar to the Comitia Centuriata, but lost much of the importance they had had in the regal period.
The Comitia Tributa comprised the plebeians grouped in tribes and had legislative functions (plebisciti with the effect of laws).
ÑRistit.dir 206 THE ORDINARY (ANNUAL) MAGISTRACIES
There were four kinds of ordinary magistracy with a period of office of one year. Two Consuls, magistrates elected to exercise the collegial function of head of state, command of the army, presidency of the various Comitia, and the execution of decisions taken by the Senate, and the Praetors, magistrates who were initially intended to have legal functions but who later became army commanders and governors as well.
ÑRistit.dir 207 In addition there were two Curulian Aediles who were responsible for the police, the provisioning of the city, and the supervision of public festivals, and the Quaestors, originally eight in number, who were in charge of public finances.
Apart from these four one-year offices, there was a five-year one of great importance, the magistracy of the Censors. These were two officials who had the task of compiling the census of cives, administrating the ager publicus (city lands), and keeping watch over the public morality of the cives and senatores. Given the delicacy of these functions, the Censors were selected from among citizens of the highest reputation and had a longer period of office than the others.
ÑRistit.dir 208 ANNUAL ORDINARY MAGISTRACIES RESERVED FOR THE PLEBS
There were only two of these magistracies, the Popular Tribunes, ten in number, who defended the rights of the plebs by exercising a veto over the resolutions of magistrates and had the power to convene the Comitia Tributa, and the two Plebeian Aediles, who assisted the Popular Tribunes and had functions similar to those of the Curulian Aediles.
ÑRistit.dir 209 EXTRAORDINARY MAGISTRACIES
This type of magistracy was used only in periods of great difficulty and danger, which usually meant in wartime. On such occasions a Dictator (Dictator or Magister Populi) was appointed, a magistrate possessing absolute powers and holding office for six months. He was able to choose a deputy to command the troops during the course of the war. This was the Commander of Cavalry (Magister equitum), who also held office for six months.
ÑRmappa.dir 201 POMPEII
ÑRmappa.dir 202 HERCULANEUM
ÑRmappa.dir 203 OSTIA
ÑRmappa.dir 204 ROME
ÑRmappa.dir 205 HADRIAN'S VILLA
ÑRmilit.dir 171 Relief representing an emperor and barbarian enemies - Rome, Palazzo dei Conservatori
ÑRmilit.dir 172 David, the Sabine Women halt the Fight between Romans and Sabines - Paris, Louvre
ÑRmilit.dir 173 Caraffe, Metellus stopping the Fight - St Petersburg, Hermitage
ÑRmilit.dir 174 Arch of Constantine, detail showing the siege of Verona. 4th cent. AD, Rome
ÑRmilit.dir 175 Trajan's Column: scene of a sacrifice, detail
ÑRmilit.dir 179 Graphic reproduction of Roman warrior
ÑRmilit.dir 201 In the first few centuries of its history Rome had no standing army. However, it was able to count on around 3,000 foot soldiers and 300 cavalrymen who would take up arms at their king's command. After the first reforms attributed to Servius Tullius, important innovations were made on the tactical and administrative plane under the Republic, making Rome the greatest military power in the Mediterranean.
ÑRmilit.dir 202 THE LEGIONS
The length of service for a legionary was about twenty years and his pay was calculated on the basis of inflation: 225 denarii under Caesar, 750 under Caracalla. In the Imperial age a legion was made up of around 5,500/6,000 men, divided into ten cohorts, with each cohort composed of six centuries. In addition the legion had a contingent of cavalry consisting of 120 men divided into squadrons, a contingent of artillery with about sixty catapults of various types and sizes, and a small supply and transport contingent. The legions were identified by a number or a name, which often referred to glorious deeds. The number of legions varied according to the period. During the Empire there were between twenty-five and thirty-three of them, so that the regular force of legionaries could vary from 150,000 to 190,000 men. The legions were usually stationed in the provinces, where problems of internal security and defense of the borders required the presence of a military contingent.
ÑRmilit.dir 203 THE AUXILIA
These were reserve troops of the Roman army and in the first few centuries of the Empire were generally recruited from people in the client states and provinces who did not have Roman citizenship. Their total number must have been more or less equivalent to that of the regular legions to which they were attached. The auxiliaries consisted of cavalry units (alae) of 480 or 1,000 men, divided into twelve or twenty-four squadrons (turmae), and infantry divisions (cohortes) of the same number of men, subdivided into six or twelve centuries. Alongside the auxiliaries fought the ╟numbers,╚ native soldiers armed with their own weapons and commanded by their own officers. At the end of the long period of military service-twenty-five years-auxiliaries and their children were granted Roman citizenship.
ÑRmilit.dir 204 During the early centuries of the Empire the Roman army was made up of about 360,000 men on ╟regular service,╚ well-armed and equipped soldiers accustomed to exertions of every kind, trained for all types of combat, and inserted in a military structure that was in no way inferior to that of the most advanced modern states. An army composed chiefly of legionaries and auxiliary troops, capable of facing any adversary and of exercising control over an Empire whose size had no precedent in human history.
ÑRmilit.dir 205 The army also included the soldiers of the Praetorian Guard, the city militia, and the vigiles, who were responsible for maintaining public order in the city and protecting it against fire. Nor should we forget the slaves and foreigners who did twenty-six years of service on warships. In the third century the Roman military organization went into progressive decline. The army was no longer able to hold back the barbarians on the Empire's vast borders. The mighty walls built around Rome by Aurelian (270-5) proved incapable of preventing the city from being conquered by Genseric, king of the Vandals (455), after over eight centuries of inviolate history.
ÑRmilit.dir 206 THE PRAETORIAN GUARD
This much feared imperial guard set up by Augustus was composed of young men of a height superior to that of the normal troops (1.7 m), who were obliged to serve for sixteen years. This select corps of the army enjoyed special privileges, not least a salary two or three times as high as the ordinary pay of a legionary. The soldiers of the Praetorian Guard, subdivided into ten cohorts-each consisting of 500 men of whom ninety were mounted-were housed by Tiberius in special camps (castra) constructed on the Viminal hill in Rome. the power wielded by the Praetorian Guard, which often played a decisive role in the appointment of a new emperor and sometimes succeeded in forcing the selection of its general (praefectus), eventually led Constantine to disband the dangerous imperial armed guard.
ÑRmilit.dir 207 The Roman soldier had been provided with a complete set of equipment and effective weapons of offense and defense from the start. Shield, helmet, and cuirass were subjected to continual improvements and made the Roman legionary increasingly invulnerable to the blows of his enemies. The development of ever more deadly offensive weapons, such as the javelin, sword, and various military engines, inflicted enormous losses of men on adversaries.
ÑRmilit.dir 208 THE GLADIUS
For centuries the typical offensive weapon of the Roman army, accustomed to hand-to-hand fighting. With a small hilt and a blade about 50 cm long (80 in the third century), it was particularly suited to thrusting rather than cutting, since the Romans held such blows to be more effective at penetrating armor and dealing mortal wounds to the enemy.
ÑRmilit.dir 209 THE JAVELIN (PILUM)
A throwing weapon widely used during the Republic and Empire to halt disorderly charges by enemy armies prior to hand-to-hand fighting. It consisted of a wooden shaft with an iron tip. Special arrangements made it useless to the enemy once thrown and gave it a greater impact through reinforcement of the terminal section and balancing of the shaft. The heaviest javelins proved to be particularly effective against armored cavalry.
ÑRmilit.dir 210 THE HELMET
The Roman soldier used various types of helmet at different times and places, and in relation to the position he occupied in the formation. In fact this protective headgear underwent remarkable evolution over the course of the centuries. The original and simple type made out of leather was replaced at the beginning of the fourth century by a metal helmet. Special modifications were made to this to render the soldier increasingly invulnerable to enemy blows. Great attention was paid to protecting the nape of the neck, forehead, and sides of the face. Helmets worn on parade were particularly elegant and often embellished with refined decorations and magnificent crests.
ÑRmilit.dir 211 THE CUIRASS (LORICA)
Over the course of the centuries the Romans made use of various types of armor to protect the body from blows. Among the oldest types, the lorica anatomica became the distinctive mark of high-ranking officers. Fitted with shoulder plates, it was made of two pieces of metal and leather held together by laces on one side. The lorica squamata, in use up until the late Imperial age, consisted instead of a sturdy corset covered with pointed and slightly overlapping metal scales. The lorica hamata, a corset of cloth or leather covered with mail, was particularly common in the first century BC, but was probably in use right through the Empire. The lorica segmentata, of which we have evidence up until the third century AD, consisted of a series of horizontal plates linked by hinges for the protection of the bust, and shoulder plates made in the same way. A belt (cingulum) with strips of leather hanging from it was used to carry weapons-gladius and dagger-as well as providing additional protection for the belly.
ÑRmilit.dir 212 THE SHIELD
Up until the middle of the fourth century BC the round shield of bronze (clipeus) was the defensive weapon most widely used by foot soldiers. Subsequently it was replaced by the scutum, a shield made up of two panels covered with leather on the outside and metal armor on the inside. The upper and lower part were protected with iron. Under Trajan (98-117), the shield in the shape of a half-cylinder came into use. This usually bore a series of decorations that were probably intended to identify the unit to which its wearer belonged. This shield remained in use until the time of Constantine, when it was replaced by the oval or round shield.
ÑRostia.dir 31 A corridor with a brightly colored mosaic floor links the various rooms of the house and leads, through arches set on columns into a small open-air garden (viridarium). The back of this garden filled with greenery was adorned with a nymphaeum, a graceful fountain with niches framed by slender columns. A staircase led to the upper floor, reserved for services. The name of the house derives from a sculptural group representing Cupid and Psyche that was found during the excavations.
ÑRostia.dir 171 The archeological area, Ostia Antica
ÑRostia.dir 172 The archeological area, Ostia Antica
ÑRostia.dir 173 Square of the Corporations, Ostia Antica
ÑRostia.dir 174 The Capitolium, Ostia Antica
ÑRostia.dir 175 Roman Tavern, nineteenth-century engraving
ÑRostia.dir 176 Thermopolium, Ostia Antica
ÑRostia.dir 177 House of Cupid and Psyche, detail. Ostia Antica
ÑRostia.dir 178 Sculptural group representing Cupid and Psyche, house of Cupid and Psyche, Ostia Antica
ÑRostia.dir 201 The literary sources date the origins of the city of Ostia to the Monarchic era. In fact it was probably founded at the mouth of the Tiber (ostium = mouth) in the seventh century BC to exploit the natural salt pans of the coast and as a military outpost to defend the important landing place and the approach by river to Rome. In the fourth century BC Ostia became Rome's first colony. Initially inhabited by 300 families, its population increased rapidly, in parallel with Rome's growing commercial power. The city, for which new fortifications were built by Sulla (first century BC), covered an area of about 70 hectares. Toward the end of the Republic there were roads lined with porticoes, modest houses, and noble domus. In the Imperial age Ostia became the most important emporium in the Mediterranean, a business and trading center of fundamental importance for the supply of food to Rome.
ÑRostia.dir 202 Between the first and second century the city was provided with an efficient harbor that definitively replaced the great commercial port of Pozzuoli. The increase in population made necessary a radical urban restructuring of the city, a process commenced by Augustus and stepped up under Trajan, Hadrian, and the Antonines. Everywhere warehouses were constructed for the storage of food and blocks of apartments on several stories (insulae) became more and more numerous. Temples, baths, a forum, and a theater were built. The economic and political crisis of Rome led to the slow and inexorable decline of Ostia. After Constantinople was made the capital of the Empire (330), malaria accelerated the pace of decline and the city was abandoned between the fourth and fifth century. Today very little is left of its ancient splendor.
ÑRostia.dir 203 PIAZZALE DELLE CORPORAZIONI Built in the Augustan age (first century AD), along with the theater, it was originally a space for the audience, who used it to take shelter from the sun during intervals in performances or from the rain when these were interrupted. As time passed the porticoes of the square were used to house the ╟offices╚ of ship owners (navicularii), negotiantes, merchants from the most important cities of the Empire, and the collegia, ╟corporations╚ or trade associations.
ÑRostia.dir 204 The mosaic floors of black and white tesserae, dating from the second century AD, with figures and inscriptions that served to identify the various offices, are of extraordinary interest. The square was used by traders from Libya, who exported ivory and animals for the circus games, Carthage, Syllectum in Tunisia, Narbonne in Gaul, and Cagliari in Sardinia. There were also offices for representatives of the wine, timber, and rope trades. Statues in honor of people linked with commerce were erected all over the square, in the middle of which Domitian had had a temple built.
ÑRostia.dir 205 THE THERMOPOLIUM ON
VIA DI DIANA
Similar to the modern bar or fast-food joint, it was one of the most popular places in the city. In fact it stood just a few meters from the crowded portico of the Forum. It was located in three rooms on the ground floor of an insula from the time of Hadrian. The three entrances are still flanked by masonry benches on which regular customers could sit to watch passersby in the street, in the shade of the balconies of the apartment above. Inside there is still the counter for the pouring of wine, along with basins to wash the dishes and shelves, also covered with marble.
ÑRostia.dir 206 A ╟still life╚ painting alludes to what was available at a thermopolium (or popina): a glass of good wine, or a drink prepared with hot water, accompanied by a plate of legumes or other snacks. There was also a small kitchen with a brick oven, an underground larder, and a small inner court with a fountain, where customers could sample the speciality of the house in the open air during good weather. Seats, benches, and tables must have been the main furnishings of the premises at the time.
ÑRostia.dir 207 DOMUS OF CUPID AND PSYCHE
A typical patrician house of the fourth century, probably occupied by a single family of prosperous citizens of the late classical city, it still has part of its refined marble decoration. In fact the walls and floors are covered with splendid decorations in opus sectile, with a geometric pattern of colored marble in the main room.
ÑRpitt.dir 171 Scene depicting historical subject - 3rd cent. BC - Rome, Palazzo dei Conservatori
ÑRpitt.dir 172 House of Sallustius, decoration in first style - Pompeii
ÑRpitt.dir 173 Villa of the Mysteries, decoration in second style - Pompeii
ÑRpitt.dir 174 Villa of the Mysteries, decoration in second style - Pompeii
ÑRpitt.dir 175 Villa of the Mysteries, decoration in second style - Pompeii
ÑRpitt.dir 176 House of Marcus Cornelius Fronto, decoration in third style - Pompeii
ÑRpitt.dir 177 House of the Vettii, decoration in fourth style - Pompeii
ÑRpitt.dir 178 Wedding of Zeus and Hera on Mount Ida - Naples, Museo Nazionale
ÑRpitt.dir 179 Reproduction of a motif tipical of Roman painting
ÑRpitt.dir 180 The Spring - Naples, Museo Nazionale
ÑRpitt.dir 181 Landscape - Naples, Museo Nazionale
ÑRpitt.dir 182 Fresco and stucco decoration depicting woman at door, Naples, Museo Nazionale
ÑRpitt.dir 183 Catacombs of the Via Latina, decoration of one of the tunnels. Rome, 4th cent. AD
ÑRpitt.dir 201 Around the third century BC a style of painting with openly nationalistic aims emerged in Rome. Like the later sculptural reliefs of a historical and narrative character, it took its inspiration from the military exploits and victories of the Romans. As the influence of Rome expanded, artists and craftsmen came to the city from the main centers of Greek art. As a result the Roman figurative repertory was enriched with new motifs and sources of inspiration.
The numerous frescoes found in Pompeii, dating from between the second century BC and 79 AD, have made it possible to classify the principal decorative motifs of Roman wall painting into four periods or styles.
ÑRpitt.dir 202 From the simple decorations of the first style, imitating wall facings made of blocks and slabs of marble, there was a gradual shift toward more and more complex and refined compositions, culminating in the large figured scenes and perspective representations of architecture of the second style, the elegant frescoes resembling miniature paintings of the third style, and the fantastic and dreamlike architectural figurations of the fourth style. Figurative compositions had a variety of subjects: themes from mythology represented in a realistic manner, along with still lifes, landscapes, scenes from the theater and gymnasium, and Cupids at play. A recurrent feature of Roman painting was the accurate depiction of the landscape in the background to the main figures.
ÑRpompei.dir 171 Pompeii: view of the city from the tower of Mercury
ÑRpompei.dir 172 Pompeii: Arch of Caligula
ÑRpompei.dir 173 Pompeii: Street of Abundance
ÑRpompei.dir 174 The atrium of a Pompeian house, general view
ÑRpompei.dir 175 Pompeii: body found near the necropolis
ÑRpompei.dir 176 Pompeii: Stabian Baths
ÑRpompei.dir 177 Pompeii: Stabian Baths
ÑRpompei.dir 178 Brawl in the Amphitheater, Naples, Museo Nazionale
ÑRpompei.dir 179 Pompeii: the amphitheater
ÑRpompei.dir 180 Pompeii: the amphitheater
ÑRpompei.dir 181 Pompeii: Atrium of the Garden of the House of the Vettii
ÑRpompei.dir 182 Pompeii: House of the Vettii - fresco
ÑRpompei.dir 183 Pompeii: Small altar in the House of the Vettii
ÑRpompei.dir 184 Pompeii: House of the Vettii - room with frescoes of mythological scenes
ÑRpompei.dir 201 Founded by the peoples of Campania, the city was soon drawn into the political sphere of the Greek colony of Cumae. Between 525 and 474 it came under Etruscan influence, but after the defeat suffered by the Etruscans in the waters off Cumae, it came back under Greek rule (474-425 BC). At the end of the fifth century BC the Samnites took it by storm. Later, after the defeat of the Samnites by the Romans, Pompeii was forced to accept the condition of a partner of Rome, while maintaining its autonomy, its own institutions, and its own language.
ÑRpompei.dir 202 Although it remained faithful to Rome during the Second Punic War, Pompeii played an active part in the insurrection of Italic peoples that led to the Second Italic War or War of the Allies (90-88 BC). In April of 89 the city was besieged and conquered by L. Cornelius Sulla. Pompeii lost its independence and became a Roman colony with the official name of Colonia Cornelia Veneria (80 BC). In 62 AD Pompeii was struck and severely damaged by the earthquake that devastated a vast area of Campania. In 79 AD, while the buildings damaged in the disaster were still being repaired, the city was totally destroyed by a terrible eruption of Vesuvius.
ÑRpompei.dir 203 THE BATHS - In Pompeii alone there were three public baths, attesting to the importance that these held in the Roman world. In fact the Roman citizen devoted a significant proportion of his time to otium (leisure), which should be seen not just as ╟pleasant idleness,╚ but above all in contrast to negotium, i.e. work. The favorite places in which to spend this free time were undoubtedly the gymnasium and the baths.
ÑRpompei.dir 204 After the earthquake of 62 AD, the only baths still functioning in Pompeii were the small ones in the Forum, which were restored at the time and decorated with beautiful friezes of brightly colored stucco. This building had an arcaded court that also served as a gymnasium, a series of service rooms, and the three usual rooms for bathing, the frigidarium, tepidarium, and calidarium. Each of these had a different structure, though all were roofed with large barrel vaults, decorated with stuccoes and frescoes, and served by not very sophisticated plumbing systems.
ÑRpompei.dir 205 THE AMPHITHEATER - Like many of Pompeii's buildings, the amphitheater had been damaged in the earthquake of 62, and at the time of the eruption had only just been reopened, to the joy of the Pompeians who were as fond of circus games as all the Romans of the time. Pompeii's amphitheater is the oldest to have survived and stands in the middle of a vast square. Its tiers of seating were supported by the city walls on one side and by heaps of the earth excavated to form the cavea or auditorium on the other. The spectacles staged there were great hunts of animals (venationes) and above all gladiatorial combats (ludi gladiatorii. The latter were in fact of Campanian origin and consisted essentially of duels to the death, with different and contrasting weapons, between pairs of trained contestants.
ÑRpompei.dir 206 HOUSE OF THE VETTII
The name derives from that of its last two owners, Aulus Vettius Restitutus and Aulus Vettius Conviva. The plan of the house is divided into two parts. In fact the masters' quarters are laid out around the main atrium and the peristyle, while the servants' quarters with the kitchen and lodgings extend from the secondary atrium on the northeast side. The most striking feature of this house is its wall paintings, almost all of them executed after the earthquake of 62 AD and therefore still in good condition.
ÑRpompei.dir 207 The visitor will see them first in the main atrium, decorated with friezes of Cupids and Psyches, set in the narrow space of the pilasters above the plinth. From the atrium one enters the peristyle, whose garden has been faithfully reconstructed by archeologists, who have been able to recreate the flower beds and replace the numerous fountains in marble and bronze with satyrs and putti. The most important rooms in the house, used for reception, face onto the garden. These include the so-called Room of the Triclinium, with beautiful mythological scenes.
ÑRrel.dir 171 Marcus Aurelius offering a sacrifice in front of the temple of Capitoline Jupiter
ÑRrel.dir 172 Scene of sacrifice with Haruspices
ÑRrel.dir 173 Roman priest
ÑRrel.dir 174 Mithras slaying a Bull, fresco from the 2nd cent. AD - Mithraeum of Marino
ÑRrel.dir 175 The Good Shepherd, detail of sarcophagus. 3rd cent. AD - Rome, Musei Capitolini
ÑRrel.dir 201 The Roman religion, like that of other peoples of ancient Italy, was heavily influenced by the Greek world. Worship of the Greek divinities was superimposed on the primitive veneration of the forces of nature and gradually supplanted it. The Romans, who took an extremely practical and utilitarian approach to life, prayed to the gods for assistance and protection in all their activities.
ÑRrel.dir 202 From the Etruscans, on the other hand, they inherited the set of doctrines that were indispensable to the practices of worship and to interpretation of the divine will. Colleges of priests were set up to fulfill the various offices and there were calendars with the main religious festivals.
ÑRrel.dir 203 A characteristic feature of Roman religion was its tolerance of the faiths of the peoples who were progressively brought into the Empire. In fact territorial expansion led to the introduction of new cults to Rome: the orgiastic rite of the goddess Cybele came from Asia Minor, the cult of Adonis from Syria, and that of Isis and Serapis from Egypt.
ÑRrel.dir 204 From the third century onward the eastern religions spread rapidly throughout the Empire, with the Persian cult of Mithras and worship of the Sun attracting large numbers of followers in the army and among the people. Finally, over the course of little more than three centuries, Christianity took the place of the pagan religion that the Romans no longer found satisfying.
ÑRroma.dir 171 Watercolor depicting a reconstruction of the Roman Forum - Rome, Soprintendenza alle Antichitê
ÑRroma.dir 172 Rome. Aerial view showing the area of the fora
ÑRroma.dir 173 Detail of the model of Ancient Rome - Rome, Museo della Civiltê Romana
ÑRroma.dir 174 Catacombs of San Pancrazio, Rome
ÑRroma.dir 175 Catacombs of San Pancrazio, detail
ÑRroma.dir 176 Catacombs of San Sebastiano, view of the interior
ÑRroma.dir 177 The Coliseum
ÑRroma.dir 178 The Coliseum
ÑRroma.dir 179 Coliseum: view of the interior
ÑRroma.dir 180 Coliseum: detail of the steps of the cavea
ÑRroma.dir 181 Coliseum: the north entrance
ÑRroma.dir 182 The Coliseum
ÑRroma.dir 183 Baths of Caracalla, detail
ÑRroma.dir 184 Baths of Caracalla, detail
ÑRroma.dir 185 Baths of Caracalla, detail
ÑRroma.dir 186 The Roman Forum in a nineteenth-century engraving
ÑRroma.dir 187 View of the Fora
ÑRroma.dir 188 The Imperial Fora, foreshortened view
ÑRroma.dir 189 The Roman Forum, view
ÑRroma.dir 190 Roman Forum: the Sacred Way
ÑRroma.dir 191 The area of the Imperial Fora, view from above
ÑRroma.dir 192 Trajan's Forum
ÑRroma.dir 193 The Arch of Constantine
ÑRroma.dir 194 The Arch of Constantine, detail of the reliefs
ÑRroma.dir 195 The Arch of Constantine, detail of the reliefs
ÑRroma.dir 196 Equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius
ÑRroma.dir 201 The political, economic, and administrative center of the state, it was the hub of Roman history for almost a millennium. Even before its legendary foundation by Romulus (753 BC), its hills were inhabited by people who made their living from stock raising and small-scale trading, favored by their privileged position close to the Tiber Island. The natural ford at this point was used for trade between Etruria and Campania, while it was possible to navigate the Tiber as far as the sea, 25 km away. The Latins chose the Palatine hill as the site of the ╟first Rome.╚ Later they drained the marsh of the Forum and, in alliance with the Sabines, extended the confines of the city to the other hills as well.
ÑRroma.dir 202 Up until Constantine, every emperor took care to restore old buildings and embellish the city with new monuments. Very little remains of Rome's ancient splendor. The ravages inflicted by time and human beings, and above all the systematic demolition of ancient buildings to obtain marble and other materials for the many churches and palaces of Renaissance Rome, have wiped out or distorted its memory forever.
ÑRroma.dir 203 THE CATACOMBS
This is the name given to the subterranean burial places excavated by the Christian communities, especially in Rome, from the second century AD onward. The tufaceous ground of the Roman countryside made it possible for the Christians to dig tunnels to house the remains of their dead, whether they were holy martyrs or humble commoners. One or more flights of steps led down into tunnels that could extend for many kilometers into the depths of a hill located outside the walls of the city.
ÑRroma.dir 204 The tunnels were lined with cubicula, niches of various shapes and sizes where the dead were placed. Some of these catacombs had fine paintings based on stories from the Old and New Testament, inscriptions or simple graffiti, and marble ornaments. Others were of more modest dimensions and less richly decorated. The most famous ones in Rome are those of Domitilla, Priscilla, St Callistus, and St Sebastian.
ÑRroma.dir 205 FLAVIAN AMPHITHEATER or COLISEUM
It was built by the emperors of the Flavian dynasty (first century AD) in a broad valley surrounded by the Esquiline, Palatine, and Coelian hills, on the site where Nero had created a small lake set amidst the green park of the Domus Aurea, the most magnificent imperial residence in Rome. It is usually called the ╟Coliseum╚ since it was located near to a colossal bronze statue of about 30 m in height, which in the Middle Ages became the symbol of Rome's greatness and immortality.
ÑRroma.dir 206 The monument's present appearance, after all the destruction wrought by man and time, conveys only part of the splendor of the ancient building, which was covered with statues and decorations of every kind. The travertine facade was made up of a series of superimposed arches framed by three orders of Tuscan, Ionic, and Corinthian engaged columns, and an attic divided into sections by slender pilaster strips and rectangular windows.
ÑRroma.dir 207 The gladiatorial spectacles, hunts, and occasional naumachies that were staged in the arena were attended by up to 68,000 people, who were not charged for entry. The majority of them were seated, according to class, on the tiers of the five sections into which the auditorium was divided. A gigantic segmented velarium or awning, hoisted into place by sailors from the fleet of Cape Misenus, stationed in Rome for the purpose, sheltered the spectators from the sun.
ÑRroma.dir 208 BATHS OF CARACALLA or ANTONINE BATHS
Built in the years 212-17 on a largely artificial terrace, they occupied an area of about 140,000 m2 and were supplied with water by a special branch of the Marcian Water that was given the name of the Antonine Water. It was able to hold 1,600 bathers at a time. Two symmetrical routes led along the central axis of the building to the calidarium, tepidarium, frigidarium, and natatio. The only larger establishment in Rome was the Baths of Diocletian, whose maximum capacity is reckoned to have been in the order of 3,000 people. The famous work of ancient sculpture known as the Farnese Bull and the mosaic depicting athletes, now in the Vatican Museums, came from the Baths of Caracalla.
ÑRroma.dir 209 THE ROMAN FORUM
For over a thousand years the valley hemmed in by the Palatine, Capitoline, and Esquiline hills was the center of the political and civil life of Rome and its Empire. The Forum was the location for assemblies of the people, meetings of the Senate in the Curia, the administration of justice, triumphal parades, and markets of every kind. Much of the area was originally marshland where the first inhabitants of the Palatine hill used to bury their dead (ninth-tenth century BC). Tradition holds that Tarquinius Priscus was responsible for important works of reclamation in this area and even the initial paving of the Forum.
ÑRroma.dir 210 The first wretched stores and wooden temples were built. In the second century BC the appearance of the Forum was altered radically. Several buildings were completely reconstructed and four basilicas were erected to house the markets and the administration of justice. In the first century BC Sulla completed the backdrop to the Forum in the direction of the Capitol with the construction of the Tabularium, the public archives of Rome. During the Empire the Forum lost much of its importance, since the center of public life was shifted to the Imperial Fora, enormous monumental complexes built by the emperors to meet the needs of the ever growing population of Rome.
ÑRroma.dir 211 The Roman Forum remained as a great Monumental Square, where nine new constructions were erected in the upper part of the Sacred Way, including the Arch of Titus, the Temple of Antoninus and Faustina and that of Venus and Rome, and the Basilica begun by Maxentius and completed by Constantine. The monuments in the Forum were kept in a good state of repair up until the time of Theodoric, but then were abandoned and began to fall into ruin. The level of the ground rose by six or seven meters, only the buildings that had been converted into churches remained standing, and towers and fortifications were built on top of the ruins. The old buildings became inexhaustible sources of construction material. Up until the last century the Roman Forum was an enormous meadow where animals of every kind grazed amidst the ruins of ancient Rome.
ÑRroma.dir 212 THE ARCH OF CONSTANTINE
In the valley of the Coliseum, the triumphal way that victorious emperors used to take through Rome is dominated by the magnificent bulk of the Arch of Constantine, reaching a height of 25 m. Its construction was decreed by the Senate after the emperor's victory over his rival Maxentius at Saxa Rubra. From a historical viewpoint, it represents the end of paganism and the triumph of Christianity, and for this reason it has been respected and restored ever since the Middle Ages.
ÑRroma.dir 213 It is of particular artistic interest, since it is made up of reliefs carved at other periods to celebrate earlier events, which make it into a sort of ╟sample collection╚ of Imperial Roman art.
Large sculptures illustrate the deeds of Constantine, while other panels, referring to military campaigns, and eight medallions with scenes of hunting and sacrifice, all taken from earlier monuments, are used to embellish the arch. Four figures of Dacian prisoners on the attic seem to have been intended as a thought-provoking warning for the enemies of Rome.
ÑRroma.dir 214 THE EQUESTRIAN STATUE OF MARCUS AURELIUS
Probably erected in 176 BC on the occasion of Marcus Aurelius' triumph after his victorious campaigns against the Germans, the statue originally stood on that part of the Coelian hill where Constantine later built the basilica of San Giovanni in Laterano. At the behest of Paul III Farnese it was transferred in 1538 to the Capitol Square designed for the purpose by Michelangelo. Of the numerous bronze equestrian statues erected in Rome and other cities of the Empire, that of Marcus Aurelius is the only one to have survived the human frenzy of destruction more or less intact.
ÑRroma.dir 215 For centuries it was believed to represent Constantine, the defender of the Christian faith, and for this reason was respected throughout the Middle Ages for its symbolic value. Only later was it recognized as a statue of the philosopher emperor, depicted with a gentle and thoughtful expression, in civilian clothing, and with his right arm raised, perhaps in the act of asking for peace. Originally the figure of a barbarian prisoner may have been set under the right foreleg of the horse.
ÑRscult.dir 171 The Ara Pacis, detail of relief showing the procession - 1st cent. BC
ÑRscult.dir 172 The Ara Pacis - Rome, 1st cent. BC
ÑRscult.dir 173 Relief with representation of the Earth, detail of the Ara Pacis - Rome, 1st cent. BC
ÑRscult.dir 178 Bas-relief representing wayfarer - Florence, Galleria degli Uffizi
ÑRscult.dir 201 Roman sculpture was strongly influenced by the Greek world and by Etruscan and Italic culture. In the monuments of the late Republican and early Imperial ages it is still possible to trace motifs drawn from various artistic traditions. Thus in Augustus' Altar of Peace the real personages of the Roman narrative relief alternate with the allegorical and mythical figures of Hellenistic art and with naturalistic decorations of an Italic spirit.
It was in the portrait and the historical narrative relief that Roman art achieved its most characteristic expressions.
ÑRscult.dir 202 The physical features of the faces of emperors, magistrates, soldiers, and ordinary people were faithfully reproduced down to the smallest detail in public sculptures and on tombs. The historical narrative relief, of which the figured frieze of Trajan's column is the finest example, was born out of the need to illustrate military exploits and public and religious events in which the true protagonists of the action were men, and not gods. Great realism was also used in the scenes of everyday life represented in funeral reliefs, found in large numbers in every city of the Empire.
ÑRvilla.dir 171 Hadrian's Villa, view from above
ÑRvilla.dir 172 Hadrian's Villa at Tivoli in a nineteenth-century engraving
ÑRvilla.dir 173 Hadrian's Villa: Nymphaeum of the Island or Maritime Theater
ÑRvilla.dir 174 Hadrian's Villa: the Nymphaeum
ÑRvilla.dir 175 Hadrian's Villa: Euripus of the Canopus - Caryatids
ÑRvilla.dir 176 Hadrian's Villa: the Canopus
ÑRvilla.dir 177 Hadrian's Villa: basin of the Poikile
ÑRvilla.dir 178 Hadrian's Villa: basin of the Poikile
ÑRvilla.dir 201 A few kilometers from Rome, at the foot of the Tiburtine hills, stands one of the most monumental and interesting complexes of Roman buildings. This is the magnificent villa constructed by Hadrian between 117 and 138 AD only two hours ride from the capital of the Empire. It was probably designed by the emperor himself, whom we know from the sources to have been a capable architect. It is an imperial residence resembling a small city and covering an area of about 120 hectares with numerous buildings.
ÑRvilla.dir 202 The names of the latter were often connected with Hadrian's memories of the journeys he made to various provinces of the Empire. The architectural solutions adopted are drawn entirely from the Roman tradition. The villa was filled with splendid marbles, statues, mosaics, nymphaea, and gardens, along with baths, roads, palaces, temples, and a theater. A series of underground passages linked the main buildings of the complex, keeping the areas on the surface free from the movement of staff and vehicles.
Today the suggestive and imposing ruins of Hadrian's Villa only convey part of the refinement and luxury of the ancient buildings, which have been excavated and studied ever since the Renaissance.
ÑRvilla.dir 203 THE MARITIME THEATER
This was one of the first buildings constructed by Hadrian at his grand Tiburtine villa. The conventional modern name may derive from the unusual circular shape and the architectural decoration of marine inspiration. In actual fact it is a small circular island surrounded by a canal, with a swing bridge and an elegant Ionic colonnade.
ÑRvilla.dir 204 On this was built a small but rational domus on a central plan. Surprisingly, this dwelling was provided with all the comforts that could be desired by a more than well-to-do Roman patrician. The refined architecture of the whole structure, the rich marble decoration that has only survived in part, and the central position of the building in the complex make it likely that it was originally used as the emperor's private retreat: a magnificent ╟apartment╚ where Hadrian could spend his leisure time undisturbed.
ÑRvilla.dir 205 CANOPUS
A valley now filled with venerable evergreen oaks and olives used to be the location for one of the most spectacular and suggestive groups of monuments in the villa. The appearance of those structures still standing is only a shadow of the complex's original splendor. A magnificent nymphaeum, adorned with niches and numerous cascades, supplied water to a long pool surrounded by statues, which may have been intended to recall the canal that linked Alexandria in Egypt to the delta of the Nile, near Canope.
ÑRvilla.dir 206 The imposing apse at the end, with a vault that used to be covered with a mosaic of colored tesserae, housed a summer triclinium, where Hadrian's more illustrious guests could eat in comfort, stretched out on a large stibadio, a semicircular ╟bed╚ of stonework of which much has survived. Other guests participated in the imperial banquet from the two pavilions that flanked the central exedra. Notwithstanding the many hypotheses that have been put forward, it has not yet proved possible to define with any certainty the purpose and the architectural and decorative arrangement of the gallery that stood at the back of the central pavilion.
ÑRvilla.dir 207 POIKHILE
The name is improperly derived from the Many-Colored Portico in Athens (stùa poikÆlh). It was once a garden filled with vegetation that covered an area of about 2 hectares, part of it constructed on top of the structures of the ╟Hundred Small Chambers,╚ the lodgings on several stories for the villa's staff. A four-sided colonnade, with curved shorter sides, it surrounded a pool of about 100 meters in length that has been restored and brought back into function in recent years.
ÑRvilla.dir 208 In ancient tines it could have been used for those ╟healthy walks╚ of which the Romans were so fond, following the long wall with tablets attached to it indicating the distance covered. The imposing wall of the poikhile, much of which still reaches its full height, testifies to the highly resistant character of Roman concrete. The holes for the beams that used to support the pitched roof are still visible.
